There are three important summarization techniques. They are selection, rejection and substitution. They are discussed hereunder.
Selection : Selection is an important summarization technique. It is essential to select major idea, key words and phrases, special terms and interpretations presented in the original resource.These aspects must be considered seriously while writing these summary. It is an important summarization technique as it helps to include all major ideas in summary.
Rejection : Rejection is an important summarization technique. lt is a process of removing unnecessary data. As cited earlier, try to reject repetitions, examples, illustrations, anecdotes, redundant, expressions, tables and statistical data. Basically rejection helps to prepare a perfect summary.
Substitution : It is also an important summarization technique. Basically it includes synthesis. It is a mode of combining several sentences into one sentence. It is recommended to use sentence substitutions, short sentences to replace lengthy sentences. Use of one-word substitutions is an added advantage in the summary writing process.
February 15, 2017 With so many classroom research studies published daily, you can be forgiven for missing some. The techniques below are super-tactical and, for the most part, unsung strategies that you’ll be excited to try tomorrow.
Just remember two things. First, there are always limitations and nuances in research, so we suggest you click the links and dig deeper into the studies. Second, studies are just words without you—your application and adaptations give them power.
2. The University of Virginia randomly selected one group of high school science students to write summaries of what they had learned in their class. Another group wrote about the usefulness of science in their own lives. The latter group earned significantly higher grades and reported more interest in science class.
9. When practicing music, sports, and math, students benefit from applying the interleaving effect. In those subjects, switch out AAABBBCCC as a learning pattern and use ABCABCABC. Here’s how that would apply to practicing tennis: forehand + backhand + volleys, and then repeat this sequence. Don’t use interleaving when students are learning something completely unfamiliar.
10. Spaced practice (studying a little bit at a time over a series of days) is more effective than massed practice (binge sessions). Although massed practice does “lead to greater short-term performance,” it impairs long-term performance.
13. Flooding the hippocampus with dopamine aids recall. To activate this “flashbulb memory” process, surprise students before or after introducing content you want them to remember. Jokes and YouTube videos will do the trick.
14. Curiosity puts the brain in a state that is conducive to learning. “When anticipating an answer, it’s like curiosity is warming up the hippocampus (memory) ahead of time.”
15. Deep encoding occurs when we think of the meaning of a concept and make connections. When introducing new content, ask students to reflect on how the idea specifically relates to them.
Improving Academic Achievement Scores
16. Some students overestimate their understanding of a concept, which can lead to unintended gotcha moments when they’re put on the spot. But nine studies show that merely asking learners to think or write for 5–20 seconds about their understanding of a topic, like how to pass a bill, can effectively help them recognize gaps in their knowledge and fill them in. Note that this technique doesn’t work for less complex subjects—with those, ask for a fuller explanation.
17. According to a Harvard study, white teachers who discussed what they have in common with their African American students helped close the achievement gap.
How to Minimize Teacher Stress
18. Suppressing negative emotions is less effective for teachers than situation reappraisal. Here’s how one teacher uses reappraisal to avoid despairing about her students’ lack of achievement: “I don’t panic . . . if the student does not do so well, I know that it's a long-term process. This is only grade 7, and there’s going to be grade 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.”
19. Don’t hang out with whiny colleagues. Sadness is contagious. One way to condition chronic complainers to be more positive is to avoid eye contact when the rant begins.
Don’t Contribute to Needless Cognitive Strain
20. Don’t read the text on a slide during a presentation. That common practice creates cognitive overload, according to numerousstudies.
23. Avoid concept confusion. Dr. Curtis Chandler identifies “comets and asteroids” and “adjectives and adverbs” as terms that befuddle students when taught back-to-back. “If the number of similarities [between two concepts] far outweighs the differences, then chances are my students will be confused.” Teach these concepts at different times during the school year.
Research on Writing Instruction
24. There is no significant statistical advantage to marking many errors on students’ drafts compared with minimal marking. Additionally, most students respond effectively to no more than five error corrections per paper and tend to ignore comments on their final drafts. The takeaway: Make just a few comments on early drafts.
26. Praise-bombing struggling African American learners for mediocre essays damages their self-esteem and may speed up “academic disengagement.” Feedback that is specific and critical and articulates an instructor’s belief in her students’ abilities elevates writing performance.
Why both teens and teachers could benefit from later school start times
A typical school day in the UK starts around 8.30am. This is often even earlier elsewhere in the world, with students sitting down to their first lesson at 7.30am in the US.
But these early start times can play havoc with teenager’s natural sleeping patterns – with research showing that waking a teenager at seven in the morning for school is similar to waking an adult at four in the morning. And while many adults wouldn’t relish such an early alarm call every working day, it’s a “non-negotiable” expectation for teenagers.
The average teenager ideally needs eight to nine hours’ sleep each night, but in reality a lot of teenagers struggle to get this much – which can then impact their performance in the classroom.
A lot of the problems arise because our sleep patterns are not fixed, and they change as we grow. For teenagers, melatonin – the sleep hormone – doesn’t start being produced until 11pm. This is why teens don’t start feeling sleepy until late at night, and why simply telling a teenager to go to bed earlier doesn’t work.
Grades earned in core subject areas of math, English, science and social studies, plus performance on state and national achievement tests, attendance rates and reduced tardiness show significantly positive improvement with the later start times.
They also found that with less sleep than recommended, the students reported that they had:
Significantly higher depression symptoms, greater use of caffeine, and are at greater risk of making poor choices for substance use.
In the US – where teenagers can legally drive from the age of 16 – the research also found later start times led to a decrease in car accidents involving teenage drivers.
Why teenagers sleep differently
To understand why a later school start time can make such a difference to teenagers’ lives, we need to take a look at the biology that governs their sleep wake cycle.
We all have a sort of hardwired “clock” in the brain – this is often referred to as our body clock. This “clock” controls the production of the hormone melatonin, and in turn, melatonin controls sleep. Melatonin is naturally produced in the brain and starts the process of sleepiness by telling your body that it’s time for bed.
The fact that many teens are sleep-deprived is reason enough to start school later in the morning.Pexels.
REM sleep is linked to learning, and it’s during REM sleep that we dream. It is characterised by quick, random movements of the eyes and paralysis of the muscles. REM sleep normally makes up around 20-25% of an adult human’s total time spent asleep – or 90 to 120 minutes. We get to REM sleep about 70 to 90 minutes after falling asleep. And if we don’t achieve REM sleep, we wake up feeling tired.
Studies have also shown that lack of REM sleep can impact our ability to learn. And this is what happens to teenagers who do not get their full allocation of sleep. They fail to get to REM sleep and then wake up feeling tired, which can then impact their ability in the classroom that day.
The benefits for late starters
So a later school start time could help to solve this problem, by ensuring teenagers get their eight plus hours of sleep and react properly to their body’s natural rhythms.
Delaying school start times is an effective countermeasure to chronic sleep loss and has a wide range of potential benefits to students with regard to physical and mental health, safety, and academic achievement.
I believe we should also look again at the timing of the whole school day and see if we can make it better for everyone. Because in my experience, there has been a general shift over the past 25 years to shorten the school day.
This is not at the cost of teaching time (which has remained constant) but at the cost of natural breaks, which has led to reduced lunch times and lesson breaks.
Later start times could help teens’ grades and health.Shutterstock
This is mainly because it makes the management of children easier. Supervising hundreds of children “playing” requires effective staffing. And there is always the fear that behaviour deteriorates during breaks. So the theory goes that having them in class and strictly supervised must be better.
But this means that students barely have enough time to absorb what they were doing in maths before suddenly they are thrust into ancient history. And teaching staff also transition from one class to another, with hardly a rest or time to refocus.
Clearly rethinking the school day could benefit everyone involved. Yes, there may be challenges in terms of parental work patterns, transport to school or changing childcare arrangements, but it could also lead to better achievement in teenagers and less of a struggle for parents in the mornings. For teachers, it could also mean a less stressful day all around – and what could be better than that?
What advice would you give to teachers who want to try this in their classrooms?There are definitely a few key points to make sure this activity runs smoothly. To ensure success:
Preview the video to determine if it would be appropriate for the age group you teach.
Make sure your students feel comfortable in your class and there’s a level of trust already established.
Have a relaxed environment with music, let them sit on desks, talk to one another, etc. However, at the the time of reveal, everyone pays attention and is respectful.
Only allow 3-4 people allowed up to write at a time, otherwise it’s overwhelming.
Have two “hot seat chairs” going at the same time if you have a class of 20 or more. Otherwise it’ll take you forever!
Don’t be afraid to sit in the “hot seat” yourself! You’ll have a better understanding of what it feels like to be up there, and it’ll make your day!
.....At the conclusion of someone’s turn at the board, I would ask the class to quiet down a bit and focus their attention towards the reveal. This allowed me to not only see the amazing reactions of the student in “the hot seat” but also the smiles of their peers knowing they had a positive impact. I would then take a photo of the student in front of their board and share it with them via Google Drive, so they could have the photo for as long as they like.
